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Invasive plants contributed to desertification and loss of ecosystem services in many dryland areas in the last century (high confidence) (Section 3.7.3). Extensive woody plant encroachment altered runoff and soil erosion across much of the drylands, because the bare soil between shrubs is very susceptible to water erosion, mainly in high-intensity rainfall events (Manjoro et al. 2012143; Pierson et al. 2013144; Eldridge et al. 2015145). Rising CO2 levels due to global warming favour more rapid expansion of some invasive plant species in some regions. An example is the Great Basin region in western North America where over 20% of ecosystems have been significantly altered by invasive plants, especially exotic annual grasses and invasive conifers, resulting in loss of biodiversity. This land-cover conversion has resulted in reductions in forage availability, wildlife habitat, and biodiversity (Pierson et al. 2011, 2013146; Miller et al. 2013147).

Helldén and Tottrup (2008)332 highlighted a greening trend in East Asia between 1982 and 2003. Over the past several decades, air temperature and the rainfall increased in the arid and hyper-arid region of Northwest China (Chen et al. 2015333; Wang et al. 2017334). Within China, rainfall erosivity has shown a positive trend in dryland areas between 1961 and 2012 (Yang and Lu 2015335). While water erosion area in Xinjiang, China, has decreased by 23.2%, erosion considered as severe or intense was still increasing (Zhang et al. 2015336). Xue et al. (2017)337 used remote sensing data covering 1975 to 2015 to show that wind-driven desertified land in northern Shanxi in China had expanded until 2000, before contracting again. Li et al. (2012)338 used satellite data to identify desertification in Inner Mongolia, China and found a link between policy changes and the locations and extent of human-caused desertification. Several oasis regions in China have seen increases in cropland area, while forests, grasslands and available water resources have decreased (Fu et al. 2017339; Muyibul et al. 2018340; Xie et al. 2014341). Between 1990 and 2011 15.3% of Hogno Khaan nature reserve in central Mongolia was subjected to desertification (Lamchin et al. 2016342). Using satellite data Liu et al. (2013)343 found the area of Mongolia undergoing non-climatic desertification was associated with increases in goat density and wildfire occurrence. 2b1af7f3a8